Foundation species
Foundation species are habitat-forming organisms that define many ecosystems including coral reefs, hardwood forests, kelp beds, and seagrass meadows. Our work with foundation species has demonstrated their importance for sustaining biodiversity and determining landscape-scale patterns of community structure. Since foundation species often have positive effects on other organisms, they have contributed to our development of the facilitation cascade concept. In two recent syntheses, we communicated how the concept of foundation species, and the related concept of ecosystem engineer, have proven to be powerful perspectives with a general ability to explain the structure and dynamics of ecological systems.
We have also continued to develop the foundation species concept through primary research in the Galapagos archipelago where slate-pencil urchins enhance biodiversity by providing a habitat for dozens of other invertebrate species that take refuge from predators among their spines. Although the urchins collectively create a unique and abundant habitat, such mobile organisms have not traditionally been thought of as foundation species. We suggest that recognizing the role of such unconventional foundation species will help us identify targets for conservation efforts, particularly where they may serve as a functional replacement following loss of other foundation species such as coral habitat that has been degraded in the Galapagos.
Foundation species are habitat-forming organisms that define many ecosystems including coral reefs, hardwood forests, kelp beds, and seagrass meadows. Our work with foundation species has demonstrated their importance for sustaining biodiversity and determining landscape-scale patterns of community structure. Since foundation species often have positive effects on other organisms, they have contributed to our development of the facilitation cascade concept. In two recent syntheses, we communicated how the concept of foundation species, and the related concept of ecosystem engineer, have proven to be powerful perspectives with a general ability to explain the structure and dynamics of ecological systems.
We have also continued to develop the foundation species concept through primary research in the Galapagos archipelago where slate-pencil urchins enhance biodiversity by providing a habitat for dozens of other invertebrate species that take refuge from predators among their spines. Although the urchins collectively create a unique and abundant habitat, such mobile organisms have not traditionally been thought of as foundation species. We suggest that recognizing the role of such unconventional foundation species will help us identify targets for conservation efforts, particularly where they may serve as a functional replacement following loss of other foundation species such as coral habitat that has been degraded in the Galapagos.
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Selected publications
Saldaña, P.H., C. Angelini, M.D. Bertness, A.H. Altieri (2024) Dead foundation species drive ecosystem dynamics. Trends in Ecology & Evolution Early online access.
Crotty, S.M., A.H. Altieri, J.F. Bruno, H. Fischman, and M.D. Bertness (2019) The foundation for building the conservation capacity of community ecology. Frontiers in Marine Science 6: 238.
Thomsen, M.S., A.H. Altieri, C. Angelini, M.J. Bishop, P.E. Gribben, G. Lear, Q. He, D.R. Schiel, B.R. Silliman, P.M. South, D.M. Watson, T. Wernberg, G. Zotz (2018) Secondary foundation species enhance biodiversity. Nature Ecology and Evolution 2: 634-639.
Davidson, T.M., A.H. Altieri, G.M. Ruiz, and M.E. Torchin (2018) Bioerosion in a changing world: a conceptual framework. Ecology Letters 21: 422-438.
Seemann, J., A. Yingst, R.D. Stuart-Smith, G.J. Edgar, A.H. Altieri (2018) The importance of sponges and mangroves in supporting fish communities on degraded coral reefs in Caribbean Panama. PeerJ 6:e4455.
Staaterman, E., M.B. Ogburn, A.H. Altieri, S.J. Brandl, R. Whippo, J. Seemann, M. Goodison, and J.E. Duffy (2017) Bioacoustic measurements complement visual biodiversity surveys: preliminary evidence from four shallow marine habitats. Marine Ecology Progress Series 575: 207-215.
Altieri, A.H. and A.D. Irving (2017) Species coexistence and the superior ability of an invasive species to exploit a facilitation cascade habitat. PeerJ 5:e2848.
Dunn, R.P., A.H. Altieri, K. Miller, M.E. Yeager, K.A. Hovel (2017) Coral identity and structural complexity drive habitat associations and demographic processes for an increasingly important Caribbean herbivore. Marine Ecology Progress Series 577: 33-47.
Nelson, H.R., C.D. Kuempel, and A.H. Altieri (2016) The resilience of reef invertebrate biodiversity to coral mortality. Ecosphere 7: e1399.
Van der Zee, E., C. Angelini, L. L. Govers, M. J. A. Christianen, A. H. Altieri, K. J. van der Reijden, B. R. Silliman, J. van De Koppel, M. van der Geest, J. A. van Gils, H. W. van der Veer, T. Piersma, P. C. de Ruiter, H. Olff, and T. van der Heide (2016) How habitat-modifying organisms structure the food web of two coastal ecosystems. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 283:20152326.
Van de Koppel, J., T. van der Heide, A.H. Altieri, B.K. Eriksson, T.J. Bouma, H. Olff, B.R. Silliman (2015) Long-distance interactions regulate the structure and resilience of coastal ecosystems. Annual Review of Marine Science 7: 139-158.
Altieri, A.H. and J.D. Witman (2014) Modular mobile foundation species as reservoirs of biodiversity. Ecosphere 5: 124.
Altieri, A.H., M.D. Bertness, T.C. Coverdale, E.E. Axelman, N.C. Herrmann, P.L. Szathmary (2013) Feedbacks underlie the resilience of salt marshes and rapid reversal of consumer driven die-off. Ecology 94: 1647-1657.
He, Q., M.D. Bertness, A.H. Altieri (2013) Global shifts toward positive species interactions with increasing environmental stress. Ecology Letters 16: 695-706.
Silliman, B.R., M.D. Bertness, A.H. Altieri, J.N. Griffin, M.C. Bazterrica, F.J. Hidalgo, C.M. Crain, M.V. Reyna (2011) Whole-community facilitation regulates biodiversity on Patagonia rocky shores. PLoS One 6: e24503.
Angelini, C., A.H. Altieri, B.R. Silliman, and M.D. Bertness (2011) Interactions among foundation species and their consequences for community organization, biodiversity, and conservation. BioScience 61: 782-789.
Thomsen, M.S., T. Wernberg, A. H. Altieri, F. Tuya, D. Gulbransen, K. McGlathery, M. Holmer, B.R. Silliman (2010) Habitat cascades: the conceptual context and global relevance of indirect positive effects. Integrative and Comparative Biology 50: 158-175.
Altieri, A.H., B.K. van Wesenbeeck, M.D. Bertness, B.R. Silliman (2010) Facilitation cascade explains positive relationship between native biodiversity and invasion success. Ecology 91: 1269-1275.
Van Wesenbeeck, B.K., C.M. Crain, A.H. Altieri, M.D. Bertness (2007) Distinct habitat types arise along a continuous hydrodynamic stress gradient due to the interplay of competition and facilitation. Marine Ecology Progress Series 349: 63-71.
Altieri, A.H., B.R. Silliman, M.D. Bertness (2007) Hierarchical organization via a facilitation cascade in intertidal cordgrass bed communities. American Naturalist 169: 195-206.
Altieri, A.H. and J.D. Witman (2006) Local extinction of a foundation species in a hypoxic estuary: integrating individuals to ecosystem. Ecology 87: 717-730.
Van de Koppel, J., A. H. Altieri, B.R. Silliman, J. F. Bruno, M. D. Bertness (2006) Scale-dependent interactions and community structure on cobble beaches. Ecology Letters 9: 45-50.
Lindsey, E.L., A.H. Altieri, J.D. Witman (2006) Influence of biogenic habitat on the recruitment and distribution of a subtidal xanthid crab. Marine Ecology Progress Series 306: 223-231.
Altieri, A.H. (2015) Ecosystem Engineers. Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
Altieri, A.H. and J. Van De Koppel (2013) Foundation species in marine ecosystems. Pages 37-56 in M. D. Bertness, J. F. Bruno, B. R. Silliman, and J. J. Stachowicz, editors. Marine Community Ecology and Conservation. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.
McCoy, M.W., A.H. Altieri, C. Holdredge, M.S. Thomsen, and B.R. Silliman (2012) Facilitation. Pages 276-279 in A. Hastings and L.J. Gross editors. Encyclopedia of Theoretical Ecology. University of California Press.
Saldaña, P.H., C. Angelini, M.D. Bertness, A.H. Altieri (2024) Dead foundation species drive ecosystem dynamics. Trends in Ecology & Evolution Early online access.
Crotty, S.M., A.H. Altieri, J.F. Bruno, H. Fischman, and M.D. Bertness (2019) The foundation for building the conservation capacity of community ecology. Frontiers in Marine Science 6: 238.
Thomsen, M.S., A.H. Altieri, C. Angelini, M.J. Bishop, P.E. Gribben, G. Lear, Q. He, D.R. Schiel, B.R. Silliman, P.M. South, D.M. Watson, T. Wernberg, G. Zotz (2018) Secondary foundation species enhance biodiversity. Nature Ecology and Evolution 2: 634-639.
Davidson, T.M., A.H. Altieri, G.M. Ruiz, and M.E. Torchin (2018) Bioerosion in a changing world: a conceptual framework. Ecology Letters 21: 422-438.
Seemann, J., A. Yingst, R.D. Stuart-Smith, G.J. Edgar, A.H. Altieri (2018) The importance of sponges and mangroves in supporting fish communities on degraded coral reefs in Caribbean Panama. PeerJ 6:e4455.
Staaterman, E., M.B. Ogburn, A.H. Altieri, S.J. Brandl, R. Whippo, J. Seemann, M. Goodison, and J.E. Duffy (2017) Bioacoustic measurements complement visual biodiversity surveys: preliminary evidence from four shallow marine habitats. Marine Ecology Progress Series 575: 207-215.
Altieri, A.H. and A.D. Irving (2017) Species coexistence and the superior ability of an invasive species to exploit a facilitation cascade habitat. PeerJ 5:e2848.
Dunn, R.P., A.H. Altieri, K. Miller, M.E. Yeager, K.A. Hovel (2017) Coral identity and structural complexity drive habitat associations and demographic processes for an increasingly important Caribbean herbivore. Marine Ecology Progress Series 577: 33-47.
Nelson, H.R., C.D. Kuempel, and A.H. Altieri (2016) The resilience of reef invertebrate biodiversity to coral mortality. Ecosphere 7: e1399.
Van der Zee, E., C. Angelini, L. L. Govers, M. J. A. Christianen, A. H. Altieri, K. J. van der Reijden, B. R. Silliman, J. van De Koppel, M. van der Geest, J. A. van Gils, H. W. van der Veer, T. Piersma, P. C. de Ruiter, H. Olff, and T. van der Heide (2016) How habitat-modifying organisms structure the food web of two coastal ecosystems. Proceedings of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 283:20152326.
Van de Koppel, J., T. van der Heide, A.H. Altieri, B.K. Eriksson, T.J. Bouma, H. Olff, B.R. Silliman (2015) Long-distance interactions regulate the structure and resilience of coastal ecosystems. Annual Review of Marine Science 7: 139-158.
Altieri, A.H. and J.D. Witman (2014) Modular mobile foundation species as reservoirs of biodiversity. Ecosphere 5: 124.
Altieri, A.H., M.D. Bertness, T.C. Coverdale, E.E. Axelman, N.C. Herrmann, P.L. Szathmary (2013) Feedbacks underlie the resilience of salt marshes and rapid reversal of consumer driven die-off. Ecology 94: 1647-1657.
He, Q., M.D. Bertness, A.H. Altieri (2013) Global shifts toward positive species interactions with increasing environmental stress. Ecology Letters 16: 695-706.
Silliman, B.R., M.D. Bertness, A.H. Altieri, J.N. Griffin, M.C. Bazterrica, F.J. Hidalgo, C.M. Crain, M.V. Reyna (2011) Whole-community facilitation regulates biodiversity on Patagonia rocky shores. PLoS One 6: e24503.
Angelini, C., A.H. Altieri, B.R. Silliman, and M.D. Bertness (2011) Interactions among foundation species and their consequences for community organization, biodiversity, and conservation. BioScience 61: 782-789.
Thomsen, M.S., T. Wernberg, A. H. Altieri, F. Tuya, D. Gulbransen, K. McGlathery, M. Holmer, B.R. Silliman (2010) Habitat cascades: the conceptual context and global relevance of indirect positive effects. Integrative and Comparative Biology 50: 158-175.
Altieri, A.H., B.K. van Wesenbeeck, M.D. Bertness, B.R. Silliman (2010) Facilitation cascade explains positive relationship between native biodiversity and invasion success. Ecology 91: 1269-1275.
Van Wesenbeeck, B.K., C.M. Crain, A.H. Altieri, M.D. Bertness (2007) Distinct habitat types arise along a continuous hydrodynamic stress gradient due to the interplay of competition and facilitation. Marine Ecology Progress Series 349: 63-71.
Altieri, A.H., B.R. Silliman, M.D. Bertness (2007) Hierarchical organization via a facilitation cascade in intertidal cordgrass bed communities. American Naturalist 169: 195-206.
Altieri, A.H. and J.D. Witman (2006) Local extinction of a foundation species in a hypoxic estuary: integrating individuals to ecosystem. Ecology 87: 717-730.
Van de Koppel, J., A. H. Altieri, B.R. Silliman, J. F. Bruno, M. D. Bertness (2006) Scale-dependent interactions and community structure on cobble beaches. Ecology Letters 9: 45-50.
Lindsey, E.L., A.H. Altieri, J.D. Witman (2006) Influence of biogenic habitat on the recruitment and distribution of a subtidal xanthid crab. Marine Ecology Progress Series 306: 223-231.
Altieri, A.H. (2015) Ecosystem Engineers. Oxford Bibliographies. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.
Altieri, A.H. and J. Van De Koppel (2013) Foundation species in marine ecosystems. Pages 37-56 in M. D. Bertness, J. F. Bruno, B. R. Silliman, and J. J. Stachowicz, editors. Marine Community Ecology and Conservation. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.
McCoy, M.W., A.H. Altieri, C. Holdredge, M.S. Thomsen, and B.R. Silliman (2012) Facilitation. Pages 276-279 in A. Hastings and L.J. Gross editors. Encyclopedia of Theoretical Ecology. University of California Press.